effects of global warming on human health essay

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Effects of Global Warming on Human Health Essay

The world has witnessed significant changes in climatic trends that have resulted in overwhelming impacts. Global warming is one of the most serious impacts brought about by climate change. It is caused by the continued increase in the earth’s average temperatures particularly the air near its surface as well as those of the oceans (Archer, 2009 p.1).

The genesis of this phenomenon can be traced to the 1950’s with significant increases over the years. Climatologists have indicated that global warming is attributed greatly to the ever increasing levels of greenhouse gases which are emitted into the atmosphere during the day to day human activities.

The burning of fossil fuel as well as deforestation has been singled out as among the major activities that result in the increase of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere (McMichael, 2003 p.8). Absence of vegetation and the burning of fossil fuel lead to increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide which in turn contributes to global warming.

The increasing global temperatures cause the level of water in the seas to rise due to the melting of sea ice and glaciers. This interferes with the pattern of precipitation. Moreover, greenhouse effect is experienced when the temperatures of the atmosphere and air near the earth’s surface increase as a result of absorption and emission of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases (McKinney & Schoch, 2003 p.430).

Some of the commonly known greenhouse gases include the carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and the ozone. Global warming has numerous effects ranging from the effects on the physical, ecological to social or economic dimensions. This essay discusses the various effects of climate change on the health of human beings.

Human health is affected by global warming both directly and indirectly. While there are some benefits associated with global warming, the continued increase in the average global temperature has proved that negative consequences will increase while the advantages decrease significantly (Archer, 2009 p. 10).

People are at risk of being exposed to the negative consequences of global warming due to the change in the weather patterns. Increasing temperatures has direct influence on the physical environment as well as the human body. Change in precipitation pattern can cause increased rainfall, windstorms or drought in some areas. The rise in sea levels can cause floods and other extreme catastrophes. Furthermore, human health is affected indirectly by the changes in the quality of food consumed, air and water.

The impacts of climate change extend also to dramatic changes in agricultural production, settlement patterns and ecosystem in general (Dincer, Hepbasil & Midilli, 2009 p.424). These changes are responsible in affecting the human health either directly or indirectly. Some of the major effects of global warming on human health include; malnutrition, extreme catastrophes and spread of infectious diseases (Tennesen, 2004 p.44).

It has been established by health scientists that global warming is causing over 150,000 deaths and more than 5 million diseases every year (Archer, 2009 p.12). They also indicated that estimates could double by 2030.The changes in climate patterns result in inadequate food supply.

Drought, for instance, causes destruction of food crops leading to hunger among people and general food insecurity. The diet of that food that may be available is totally imbalanced contributing to malnutrition due to lack of essential nutrients. Health researchers have linked incidences of morbidity and mortality rates to climate change and that the impacts are felt very differently in various parts of world (Dincer et al., 2009 p.431).

Cases of malnutrition have been found to be high among people in low income countries who are already overwhelmed by the burden of diseases and higher death rates associated to increasing temperatures. Developed countries, on the other hand, are responsible for the continued climatic changes though they are yet to feel the real effects of global warming.

The spread of infectious diseases has been significantly associated with climate change. Changes in climate have resulted in different patterns of breeding and migration/distribution of disease vectors such as malarial mosquitoes and birds’ species capable of being carriers of human pathogens (Brown, 2002 p.51).

The different bird species can also be carriers of vectors of other infectious agents. Studies have shown that there is strong relationship between the intensity of transmission and pattern of occurrence of malaria and the climatic pattern in the sub-Saharan Africa. The risk of malaria infection, especially in Africa is due to the expansion of areas conducive for Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

Health scientists, however, are still trying to establish if there is clear connection between climate change and malaria infection. Dengue, the world’s most significant vector-borne viral disease presents a risk to many people due to continued climate change (Archer, 2009 p.14). The species of vectors responsible for the transmission of dengue fever have been projected to increase with global warming, particularly in most parts of Australia.

Use of contaminated drinking water is responsible for increased cases of diarrhea. Global warming has also been associated with increasing incidences of diarrheal diseases. In developing countries, mortality among children resulting from diarrhea has been on alarmingly high levels, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. In South America, cases of diarrhea among adults as well as children have been associated with increasing temperatures.

During rainy seasons, enteric pathogens have been found to be highly transmitted (Brown, 2002 p.58). Global warming is also characterized by the UV radiation which can impact negatively on human immune system (McMichael, 2003 p.35). Failure of the immune system facilitates the spread of infectious diseases due lack of sufficient protection. It can also result in skin cancer and cause cataracts which impairs vision.

Extreme weather events linked to global warming have presented another great risk to human health and survival. Significantly high numbers of deaths and illnesses have been recorded due to such catastrophes as floods, heat waves, wild fires, droughts, and storms. Unpredictable flooding with far reaching damaging potential has been witnessed in some parts of the world, especially in America and Asia. Floods can destroy infrastructure and cause the displacement of thousands or millions of people (Tennesen, 2004 p.49).

Over the last twenty years, many people and property have been lost to large-scale floods and storms. Some of the survivors of such weather disasters have later on succumbed to water-borne diseases. Some studies have shown that the rate of domestic violence against women increases with each natural disaster. Furthermore, higher incidences of post-traumatic stress disorder occur among women. Tropical cyclones and floods have caused numerous deaths and other health impacts in Latin America and South Asia.

Health problems associated with floods and other weather disasters are heavily felt in densely populated and low-lying coastal regions of the world. Global warming has also resulted in hotter days, hot nights as well as heat waves which are closely linked to the period increases in mortality rates (Archer, 2009 p.106). Heat waves are mostly experienced in the United States and Europe and have always resulted in excess mortality of up to 35,000 deaths annually in Europe alone.

In the United States, records indicate that more annual deaths are caused by heat waves which are more than those by tornadoes, hurricanes, floods and earthquakes combined. If the trend of global warming over the past 12 years continues, heat waves will result in increased cases of heat stroke as well as other heat-related deaths. Apart from causing deaths from hunger, malnutrition, and speeding the spread of infectious diseases, drought due to global warming causes the increase in respiratory diseases.

Semi-arid and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been known to be prone to meningococcal meningitis. As the global temperatures increases, the level of air pollution increases accordingly. This aerial pollution has caused a significant increase in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, which include asthma and cardiac disarrythmia (Tennesen, 2004 p.52). Ground-level ozone is expected to increase in some cities of the United States as climate change continues to occur.

The ever rising global heat levels is usually the cause of wildfires which destroy homes, kill people and their livelihoods as well as air pollution(McMichael, 2003 p.165). Wildfires have been known to occur mainly in drought stricken areas. In the United States, people in states like California which may experience prolonged summer periods are likely to be displaced due to the risk of wildfires.

The essay has explored the various effects of global warming on human health. It is evident that climate change has numerous impacts on human existence which can either be direct or indirect. Some of the effects identified include; drought, floods, wildfires, heat waves, and resultant effects such as infectious diseases like malaria and dengue, diarrhea, malnutrition, post-traumatic stress disorders, immune failure, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

Weather disasters have also been known to cause instant deaths. Environmental scientists have established that these consequences will continue to increase as long as the various human activities contributing to climate change continue to be practiced. Appropriate measures, therefore, need to be taken in order to mitigate the disastrous effects of global warming on human health.

Archer, D. (2009) The long thaw: how humans are changing the next 100,000 years of earth’s climate . Princeton University Press, pp. 1-158

Brown, D. A. (2002) American heat: ethical problems with the United States’ response to global warming . Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 49-61

Dincer, I., Hepbasil, A., & Midilli, A. (2009) Global warming: engineering solutions . Springer, pp. 424-38

McKinney, M. L. & Schoch, R. M (2003) Environmental Science: systems and solutions (3 rd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning, pp. 430-42

McMichael, A. J. (2003) Climate change and human health: risks and responses (2 nd ed.).World Health Organization, pp. 8-175

Tennesen, M. (2004) The complete idiot’s guide to global warming. Alpha Books, pp. 44-53

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How will global warming harm human health and well-being?

The major public health organizations of the world have said that climate change is a critical public health problem. According to the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, climate change makes many existing diseases and conditions worse, and it helps pests and pathogens spread into new regions. The most vulnerable people—children, the elderly, the poor, and those with health conditions—are at increased risk for climate-related health effects.

effects of global warming on human health essay

Edward Butcher, 64, looks out into the street as he sits near the window to stay cool in his non-air conditioned apartment on a sweltering Wednesday, Aug. 2, 2006 in the Ridgewood section of the Queens borough of New York. AP Photo/Jason DeCrow.

Examples of public health risks

Extreme heat and poor air quality increase complications from underlying heart and respiratory conditions like asthma, renal failure, and pre-term birth, and as temperatures rise, there will be more heat-related illness and deaths in both urban and rural areas.
The risk of very large fires has increased and will increase further across California and other parts of the West, directly threatening people’s lives and causing severe air pollution across large areas.
The frequency and intensity of heavy downpours has increased and is likely to increase further, raising the risk of flash flooding.
Ticks and mosquitos that transmit illnesses like Lyme disease and West Nile virus are likely to increase and spread to new areas in the United States.
More frequent heavy rain events will likely increase Americans’ exposure to water-borne illnesses, including those linked to sewage contamination of drinking water. Recreational waters are likely to experience more outbreaks of aquatic pathogens, including Vibrio bacteria and harmful algal blooms.
Human-caused climate change also threatens food safety in multiple ways including lowering the nutritional quality of staples like wheat and rice, causing greater accumulation of mercury and other toxins in seafood, and increasing the chance for food-borne pathogens to enter to food supply.

More U.S. impacts . More global impacts .

IPCC (2012): Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation . A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 582 pp.

Portier, C.J., K. Thigpen-Tart, S.R. Carter, C.H. Dilworth, A.E. Grambsch, J. Gohlke, J. Hess, S.N. Howard, G. Luber, J.T. Lutz, T. Maslak, N. Prudent, M. Radtke, J.P. Rosenthal, T. Rowles, P.S. Sandifer, J. Scheraga, P.J. Schramm, D. Strickman, J.M. Trtanj, P-Y Whung (2010): A Human Health Perspective On Climate Change: A Report Outlining the Research Needs on the Human Health Effects of Climate Change . Research Triangle Park, NC: Environmental Health Perspectives/National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002272

Ebi, K.L., J.M. Balbus, G. Luber, A. Bole, A. Crimmins, G. Glass, S. Saha, M.M. Shimamoto, J. Trtanj, and J.L. White-Newsome, 2018: Human Health. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 539–571. doi: 10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH14

Ziska, L., A. Crimmins, A. Auclair, S. DeGrasse, J.F. Garofalo, A.S. Khan, I. Loladze, A.A. Pérez de León, A. Showler, J. Thurston, and I. Walls (2016). Ch. 7: Food Safety, Nutrition, and Distribution. In The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 189–216. http:// dx.doi.org/10.7930/J0ZP4417

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Global Warming Essay in 150, 250, & 500 Words

Updated on
October 25, 2024

Writing an essay on global warming is essential for understanding one of the most pressing global challenges of our time. Essays are vital to academic learning and are frequently included in exams like SAT, UPSC, IELTS, and TOEFL. They help students articulate thoughts clearly and analyze societal and environmental issues. Global warming, as a topic, is of critical importance because it addresses concerns that have long-term consequences for ecosystems, weather patterns, and human life.

In this article, we’ll explore the causes, effects, and solutions to global warming and offer tips on how to write an effective essay on global warming. This guide gives students insights into the topic, helping them engage in meaningful discussions on this global issue.

This Blog Includes:

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Since the industrial and scientific revolutions, Earth’s resources have been gradually depleted. Furthermore, the start of the world’s population exponential expansion is particularly hard on the environment. Simply put, as the population’s need for consumption grows, so does the use of natural resources , as well as the waste generated by that consumption.

Climate change has been one of the most significant long-term consequences of this. Climate change is more than just the rise or fall of global temperatures; it also affects rain cycles, wind patterns, cyclone frequencies, sea levels, and other factors. It has an impact on all major life groupings on the planet.

What is Global Warming?

Before writing an Essay on Global Warming, we must understand global warming. It is the unusually rapid increase in Earth’s average surface temperature over the past century, primarily due to the greenhouse gases released by people burning fossil fuels . The greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and chlorofluorocarbons. The weather prediction has been becoming more complex with every passing year, with seasons more indistinguishable, and the general temperatures hotter.

The number of hurricanes, cyclones, droughts, floods, etc., has risen steadily since the onset of the 21st century. The supervillain behind all these changes is Global Warming. The name is quite self-explanatory; it means the rise in the temperature of the Earth.

When writing an essay on global warming, knowing what causes it is important. Understanding these causes will help you write better and give useful suggestions for reducing global warming. According to recent studies, many scientists believe the following are the primary four causes of global warming:

Deforestation
Greenhouse emissions
Carbon emissions per capita

Extreme global warming is causing natural disasters , which can be seen everywhere. One of the causes of global warming is the extreme release of greenhouse gases that become trapped on the earth’s surface, causing the temperature to rise. Similarly, volcanoes contribute to global warming by spewing excessive CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The increase in population is one of the major causes of Global Warming. This increase in population also leads to increased air pollution . Automobiles emit a lot of CO 2 , which remains in the atmosphere. This increase in population is also causing deforestation, which contributes to global warming.

The earth’s surface emits energy into the atmosphere through heat, keeping the balance with the incoming energy. Global warming depletes the ozone layer, bringing about the end of the world. There is a clear indication that increased global warming will result in the extinction of all life on Earth’s surface.

Global warming significantly alters natural weather patterns, leading to unpredictable seasons and extreme weather events. Higher global temperatures contribute to severe storms, prolonged droughts, and increased frequency of wildfires. Understanding these shifts and their impact on agriculture, water supplies, and human health underscores the need for climate change mitigation strategies.

Why Urgent Action on Global Warming Is Essential for Environmental Stability

Addressing global warming is crucial to maintaining ecological balance and preventing further harm to Earth’s climate. Without action, rising temperatures lead to severe consequences such as more natural disasters, increased droughts, and displaced wildlife. Immediate steps toward sustainable energy, conservation, and pollution control can prevent irreversible damage and promote a healthier planet.

Global warming is a serious challenge, but we can slow its impact and protect the planet with collective efforts and effective strategies. Here are some key solutions to address the global warming issue, which you can mention while writing an essay on global warming.

1. Community Efforts & Activism

Activism and community involvement are crucial to slowing global warming.
Governments must develop concrete plans and step-by-step programs to prevent further environmental harm.

2. Collaboration Across All Levels

Individuals, communities, and governments must work together to find solutions.
Key focus areas include pollution control, managing population growth, and sustainable use of natural resources.

3. Reduce Plastic Use

Plastic production is a major contributor to global warming, and recycling takes years.
Reducing plastic consumption can significantly lower emissions.

4. Combat Deforestation

Planting more trees restores green spaces and helps control global warming.
Deforestation must be minimized to maintain ecological balance.

5. Regulate Industrialization

Industries should be restricted from operating in green zones to protect ecosystems.
Clear rules are needed to ensure industrial activities do not harm plants or wildlife.

Sample Essays on Global Warming

These sample essays on global warming explore its causes, impacts, and potential solutions. We offer essays on global warming in various lengths, including 150, 250, and 500 words. Take a look!

Essay on Global Warming in 150 words

Global Warming is caused by rising carbon dioxide levels in the earth’s atmosphere, primarily due to human activities that have harmed the environment for centuries. The average global temperature has increased by 1.5 degrees Celsius in recent years, posing severe threats to our planet. Addressing this issue requires collective global efforts.

One effective step is to ban deforestation and promote afforestation. Planting trees near homes, offices, and public spaces can help reduce carbon dioxide levels. Participating in tree-planting events and spreading awareness about their importance can make a significant impact. While the damage already done cannot be reversed, we can take steps to prevent further harm and protect the earth for future generations.

Over a long period, it is observed that the temperature of the earth is increasing. This affected wildlife, animals, humans, and every living organism. Glaciers have been melting, and many countries have started water shortages, flooding, and erosion and all this is because of global warming.

No one can be blamed for global warming except for humans. Human activities such as gases released from power plants, transportation, and deforestation have increased gases such as carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants in the earth’s atmosphere. The main question is how to control the current situation and build a better world for future generations. It starts with little steps by every individual.

Start using cloth bags made from sustainable materials for all shopping purposes, instead of using high-watt lights, use energy-efficient bulbs, switch off the electricity, don’t waste water, abolish deforestation and encourage planting more trees. Shift energy from petroleum or other fossil fuels to wind and solar energy. Instead of throwing out the old clothes donate them to someone so that it is recycled.

Donate old books; don’t waste paper. Above all, spread awareness about global warming. Every little thing a person does towards saving the earth will contribute in big or small amounts. We must learn that 1% effort is better than no effort. Pledge to take care of Mother Nature and speak up about global warming.

Global warming isn’t a prediction, and it is happening! In the most simple terms, a person denying it or unaware of it is complicit. Do we have another planet to live on? Unfortunately, we have been bestowed with this one planet only that can sustain life, yet over the years, we have turned a blind eye to the plight it is in. Global warming is not an abstract concept but a global phenomenon occurring ever so slowly, even now. Global Warming occurs every minute, resulting in a gradual increase in the Earth’s overall climate. Brought about by greenhouse gases that trap the solar radiation in the atmosphere, global warming can change the entire map of the earth, displacing areas, flooding many countries, and destroying multiple lifeforms. Extreme weather is a direct consequence of global warming, but it is not an exhaustive consequence. There are virtually limitless effects of global warming which are all harmful to life on earth. The sea level is increasing by 0.12 inches per year worldwide. This is happening because of the melting of polar ice caps because of global warming. This has increased the frequency of floods in many lowland areas and has caused damage to coral reefs. The Arctic is one of the worst-hit areas affected by global warming. Air quality has been adversely affected, and the acidity of the seawater has also increased, causing severe damage to marine life forms. Severe natural disasters are brought about by global warming which has had dire effects on life and property. As long as mankind produces greenhouse gases, global warming will continue to accelerate. The consequences are felt at a much smaller scale which will increase to become drastic shortly. The power to save the day lies in the hands of humans, who need to seize the day. Energy consumption should be reduced on an individual basis. Fuel-efficient cars and other electronics should be encouraged to reduce the wastage of energy sources. This will also improve air quality and reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming is an evil that can only be defeated when fought together. It is better late than never. If we all take steps today, we will have a much brighter future tomorrow. Global warming is the bane of our existence, and various policies have come up worldwide to fight it, but that is not enough. The actual difference is made when we work individually to fight it. Understanding its import now is crucial before it becomes an irrevocable mistake. Exterminating global warming is of utmost importance, and we are as responsible for it as the next.

Also Read: Concept of Sustainable Development

Always hear about global warming everywhere, but do we know what it is? The evil of the worst form, global warming, is a phenomenon that can affect life more fatally. Global warming refers to the increase in the earth’s temperature as a result of various human activities. The planet is gradually getting hotter and threatening the existence of lifeforms on it. Despite being relentlessly studied and researched, global warming for the majority of the population remains an abstract concept of science. It is this concept that, over the years, has culminated in making global warming a stark reality and not a concept covered in books. Global warming is not caused by one sole reason that can be curbed. Multifarious factors cause global warming, most of which are a part of an individual’s daily existence. Burning of fuels for cooking, in vehicles, and for other conventional uses, a large amount of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, amongst many others, is produced, which accelerates global warming. Rampant deforestation also results in global warming as lesser green cover results in an increased presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is a greenhouse gas. Finding a solution to global warming is of immediate importance. Global warming is a phenomenon that has to be fought unitedly. Planting more trees can be the first step that can be taken toward warding off the severe consequences of global warming. Increasing the green cover will result in regulating the carbon cycle. There should be a shift from using nonrenewable energy to renewable energy, s uch as wind or solar energy, which causes less pollution and thereby hinders the acceleration of global warming. Reducing energy needs at an individual level and not wasting energy in any form is the most important step to be taken against global warming. The warning bells are tolling to awaken us from the deep slumber of complacency we have slipped into. Humans can fight against nature, and it is high time we acknowledged that. With all our scientific progress and technological inventions, fighting off the negative effects of global warming is implausible. We have to remember that we do not inherit the earth from our ancestors but borrow it from our future generations and the responsibility lies on our shoulders to bequeath them a healthy planet for life to exist.

Digvijay Singh

Having 2+ years of experience in educational content writing, withholding a Bachelor's in Physical Education and Sports Science and a strong interest in writing educational content for students enrolled in domestic and foreign study abroad programmes. I believe in offering a distinct viewpoint to the table, to help students deal with the complexities of both domestic and foreign educational systems. Through engaging storytelling and insightful analysis, I aim to inspire my readers to embark on their educational journeys, whether abroad or at home, and to make the most of every learning opportunity that comes their way.

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Climate change, human health, and epidemiological transition

Bruce barrett, joel w charles, jonathan l temte.

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[email protected] (B. Barrett). Fax: +1 608 263 5813

Issue date 2015 Jan.

The health of populations depends on the availability of clean air, water, food, and sanitation, exposure to pathogens, toxins and environmental hazards, and numerous genetic, behavioral and social factors. For many thousands of years, human life expectancy was low, and population growth was slow. The development of technology-based civilizations facilitated what Abdel Omran called “epidemiological transition,” with increasing life expectancy and rapid population growth. To a large extent, the spectacular growth of human populations during the past two centuries was made possible by the energy extracted from fossil fuels. We have now learned, however, that greenhouse gases from fossil fuel combustion are warming the planet's surface, causing changes in oceanic and atmospheric systems, and disrupting weather and hydrological patterns. Climate change poses unprecedented threats to human health by impacts on food and water security, heat waves and droughts, violent storms, infectious disease, and rising sea levels. Whether or not humanity can reduce greenhouse gas emissions quickly enough to slow climate change to a rate that will allow societies to successfully adapt is not yet known. This essay reviews the current state of relevant knowledge, and points in a few directions that those interested in human health may wish to consider.

Keywords: Climate change, Environment, Epidemiology, Global warming, Population health

In his seminal 1971 paper “The epidemiological transition,” Abdel Omran put forth a conceptual framework linking the many facets of epidemiology with the forces behind population dynamics, emphasizing the changing nature of structural influence ( Omran, 1971 ). At that point in human history, clear and convincing evidence had emerged documenting a “transition in which degenerative and man-made diseases displace pandemics of infection as the primary causes of morbidity and mortality.” Around the same time, scientists were beginning to report that human emissions of greenhouse gases were causing global warming and climate change ( Benton, 1970 ; Gast, 1971 ; Manabe and Wetherald, 1975 ).

Omran divided human history into three major epidemiological epochs. The first, or “Age of Pestilence and Famine,” lasted for thousands of years and was characterized by cyclic patterns of localized population growth ended by major die-offs, often precipitated by war, civilization collapse, and/or epidemic infection. In the second “Age of Receding Pandemics” Omran wrote that “mortality declines progressively; and the rate of decline accelerates as epidemic peaks become less frequent or disappear.” In Omran's third epoch, the “Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases,” “mortality continues to decline and eventually approaches stability at a relatively low level. The average life expectancy at birth rises gradually until it exceeds 50 years. It is during this stage that fertility becomes the crucial factor in population growth.”

For more than a century, knowledge regarding “degenerative and man-made diseases” has increased at a dizzying pace. The era of using science to identify and respond to human-engendered disease arguably began when John Snow in 1854 traced the source of a London cholera epidemic and then removed the Broad Street pump handle to limit further contagion ( Koch and Denike, 2009 ; Paneth, 2004 ; Tulchinsky, 2010 ). Not long afterwards, work by Louis Pasteur ( Bordenave, 2003 ) and others led to a remarkably broad and detailed understanding of infectious disease, much of which was caused or exacerbated by population growth, urbanization, and crowding. These discoveries provided rationale for large scale potable water, sanitation and public health systems, which in turn facilitated even more rapid population growth in the world's emerging urban centers ( Szreter, 2003 ).

More recently, the cardiovascular disease epidemic has been investigated and addressed at multiple levels, with several proven strategies to normalize blood pressure, prevent clots, and reduce cholesterol. For several cancers, useful screening and/or effective treatments are now available. Environmental, occupational and behavioral strategies have been even more effective. Science demonstrating tobacco's ill effects was followed by widespread and effective smoking cessation campaigns. Seat belts, safer automobiles and better roadways have greatly reduced motor vehicle casualties. Water and air pollution have improved in many locales, with measurable improvements in cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality. Mostly missing from the medicine and public health discourse, however, has been the realization that massive-scale human activity is radically altering the atmosphere and surface of the planet, and that the basic functionality of our life-sustaining ecosystem can no longer be taken for granted.

It took several million years for anthropoid apes to evolve to anatomically modern human form, and then another 400 centuries before our Homo sapiens sapiens ancestors began to show their prowess. Following the advent of agriculture around 10,000 years ago, populations began to increase substantively, spreading out across the globe, forming cities, kingdoms, and civilizations. By 1800, there were approximately a billion (1,000,000,000) people on the planet. This doubled to around 2 billion by 1922, 4 billion by 1974, and 7 billion today. New technologies and systems of production led to rapid and widespread developments in agriculture, transportation and sanitation, with ever-increasing numbers of people living longer, more productive, and more consumptive lives.

The past two centuries of explosive population growth were facilitated in large part by the burning of fossil fuels. Mechanization of agriculture, combined with increasing agrochemical inputs, not only fertilizers, but also pesticides, allowed huge increases in crop productivity, which in turn fueled population growth. Exploitation of coal, oil, and natural gas yielded vast and rapid systems of transport, electrical power, and a globalized economy of relatively inexpensive and widely available products, services, and information exchange. This modern era of explosive growth, however, cannot continue unabated, given the finite nature of the resources and the ecological threats that unrestrained consumption poses. Having survived (so far) the specter of nuclear war, humanity is now facing the fundamental contradiction of continued growth trajectories in the face of resource and ecosystem limitations. If we successfully respond to these challenges and transition to a sustainable future, humanity may enter a new age, characterized by much more prudent use of energy, among other things. These ideas are not entirely new. In 1798, Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus noted that finite resources, such as arable land, would eventually be overcome by sustained population growth: “The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man ( Malthus, 1798 ).”

Similar ideas have been put forth many times since, most notably in 1968 by Paul and Ann Ehrlich in The Population Bomb ( Ehrlich, 1968 ) and then in 1972 in The Limits to Growth ( Meadows et al., 1972 ) by Donella Meadows and colleagues from The Club of Rome, who showed with then state-of-art computer modeling that finite resources are incompatible with unlimited economic and population growth. Similar notions were initially explored in the ecological literature by writers such as Pianka (1970) and MacArthur and Wilson (1967) who showed that reproduction rates and longevity dynamics combined with environmental constraints, such as availability of food and water, lead to “boom and bust” cycles, and, occasionally, to species extinction.

What is relatively new to this discourse, however, is the realization that human-emitted greenhouse gases are warming the planet, melting the ice caps, raising the oceans, and increasing the frequency of droughts, floods and extreme weather events. There is no longer any reasonable doubt that global warming is occurring, and that this is due primarily to human activities ( IPCC Working Group 1, 2013 ; IPCC Working Group 2, 2014 ; National Academy of Sciences, 2014 ; National Climate Assessment and Development Advisory Committee, 2014 ). There is also very little doubt that ensuing changes in climatic patterns will lead to myriad adverse outcomes, including heat waves, droughts, and increased frequency and violence of major weather events ( Honda et al., 2014 ; Kravchenko et al., 2013 ; Lane et al., 2013 ; Stanke et al., 2013 ). These will in turn accelerate the already monumental and tragic loss of biodiversity, ( Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Hooper et al., 2012 ; Mayhew et al., 2008 ; Pimm et al., 2014 ; World Resources Institute, 2005 ) and will promote the spread of infectious diseases such as malaria and gastrointestinal infections ( De Luca and Giraldi, 2011 ; Murray et al., 2013 ; Patz and Reisen, 2001 ; Ramasamy and Surendran, 2011 ). The billion or so people living on low-lying islands and coastlines will need to immigrate, adapt, or perish ( McMichael et al., 2012a ). This will place pressure not only on those most directly threatened, but on political and economic systems in neighboring countries, and indeed, on all societies. Health outcomes, psychosocial stresses and behavioral responses cannot be predicted with confidence, but the broad outlines are extremely concerning ( Patz et al., 2014 ).

Since “The epidemiological transition” was first published in 1971, the scientific understanding of anthropogenic global warming has matured. While some details are still emerging, the broad outlines are incontrovertible. The burning of fossil fuels has released hundreds of gigatons of greenhouse gases, most notably carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which has increased in atmospheric concentration from pre-industrial levels of 280 parts per million (ppm) to more than 400 ppm today ( IPCC Working Group 1, 2014 ). This has already contributed to a mean surface temperature increase of 0.9 °C, and an average ocean surface rise of more than 20 cm ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007 ). Current projections suggest that average global temperatures will rise to 2 to 6 °C above the levels in which humanity evolved ( IPCC Working Group 1, 2014 ). Even the most conservative projections conclude that this will constitute the most rapid change of atmospheric composition and global temperature ever occurring in our planet's 4.5 billion year history ( National Research Council, 2013a ). It will also accelerate what is already by far the worst wave of plant and animal extinctions our planet has experienced, with approximately 3 species disappearing each hour and a third of all vertebrates disappearing in less than 50 years, an extinction rate of approximately 1000 times evolutionary background averages ( Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Hooper et al., 2012 ; Mayhew et al., 2008 ; Pimm et al., 2014 ; World Resources Institute, 2005 ).

Following the advice of numerous scientific bodies, the 2009 Copenhagen Accord called for policies that would limit average planetary warming to no more than 2.0 °C ( Ramanathan and Xu, 2010 ). Current best estimates conclude that no more than an additional 400 to 800 gigatons of CO 2 can be added to the atmosphere if we are to have a reasonable chance of staying within this limit ( IPCC Working Group 1, 2014 ; Meinshausen et al., 2009 ). Burning all proven coal, oil and gas reserves, however, would produce around 2800 gigatons, likely leading to temperature rises of 3 to 6 °C ( Meinshausen et al., 2009 ). Warming of this magnitude could trigger positive feedback loops pushing atmospheric and oceanic systems past a series of crucial tipping points ( Hansen et al., 2013 ; National Research Council, 2013a ). As the ice cover melts, less of the sun's energy is reflected, increasing heating effects. Melting of the northern tundra would release vast quantities of methane and other greenhouse gases, further accelerating the process. Conservative models project that water from melting of the Greenland and Antartic ice sheets will combine with thermal expansion to yield sea level rises of 200–600 cm by the year 2100 ( IPCC Working Group 1, 2014 ). Adding in tipping points and positive feedback loops, we may be looking at ocean surface rises of 10mor more by the middle of next century ( Hansen et al., 2013 ; Joughin et al., 2014 ; Rahmstorf, 2010 ; Rignot et al., 2014 ). Thirteen of the world's 20 largest cities are located on a coastline. More than 2 billion people live within 60 miles of the sea. The scale and complexity of relocation and adaptation efforts needed for sustainable survival in such a scenario are difficult to forecast. Current best estimates project the number of environmental refugees in the tens to hundreds of millions within the next few decades ( McMichael et al., 2012a ). In the longer term, global warming victims and refugees could number in the billions, as seas would rise by more than 200 ft if all the ice melts ( Folger, 2013 ).

The broad outlines of the effect of global warming on human health are only beginning to emerge ( Costello et al., 2011 ; Ebi, 2011 ; McMichael et al., 2012b ; Patz et al., 2007 , 2014 ; Rapley, 2012 ). One authoritative study published in the Lancet in 2009 ( Costello et al., 2009 ) described six categories related to projected health effects: 1) changing patterns of disease, 2) food, 3) water and sanitation, 4) shelter and human settlements, 5) extreme weather events, and 6) migration. While useful, these categories are overlapping and interactive. Changing climatic patterns are causing both droughts ( Battisti and Naylor, 2009 ; Stanke et al., 2013 ) and floods, ( Lane et al., 2013 ; Woodward et al., 2013 ) directly impacting potable water availability ( Bates et al., 2008 ) and agricultural productivity ( Lobell and Gourdji, 2012 ). Extreme weather events are dangerous and costly, and may threaten water and sewage systems, ( Lane et al., 2013 ; Schmeltz et al., 2013 ) reduce agricultural output, ( Battisti and Naylor, 2009 ; Friel et al., 2009 ; Lobell et al., 2008 ) and damage housing and economic infrastructure ( Lane et al., 2013 ; Sauerborn and Ebi, 2012 ).Malnutrition and poor sanitation lead to more frequent and virulent outbreaks of infectious disease. Ecosystem changes can increase prevalence of vectors and reservoir hosts, which when combined with decreased human host resistance, can lead to deadly epidemics of cholera, dengue, cryptosporidia, West Nile, hantavirus, Lyme disease, or malaria ( Bai et al., 2013 ; De Luca and Giraldi, 2011 ; McMichael et al., 2006 ; Patz et al., 2014 ; Ramasamy and Surendran, 2011 ). All of these climate-related effects would increase personal and social vulnerability, promoting conflict and/or migration ( Bronen and Chapin, 2013 ; Burke et al., 2010 ; McMichael et al., 2012a ; National Research Council, 2013b ).

According to Fritze, mental health impacts of climate change will emerge in three distinct ways ( Fritze et al., 2008 ). First, direct effects will occur through personal experience of extreme weather events, as has been observed among victims of various extreme weather events ( Amstadter et al., 2009 ; Bronen and Chapin, 2013 ; Hart et al., 2011 ; Larrance et al., 2007 ; Schmeltz et al., 2013 ). Second, disruptions in social, economic and environmental determinates of health will exacerbate a variety of mental health conditions ( Blashki et al., 2007 ). Third, individuals may experience emotional distress and anxiety about the future with the realization and understanding of the consequences of, and threats posed by, global warming ( Fritze et al., 2008 ).

While a few geographical areas may see increased agricultural productivity, most experts agree that the overall trend will be towards worsened food insecurity ( Lobell and Gourdji, 2012 ). Shorter winters and higher CO 2 concentrations stimulate photosynthesis, potentially increasing crop yields by as much as 1.8% per decade ( Lobell et al., 2011 ). At the same time, however, warmer temperatures increase plants' need for water, leading to drought and heat-related crop failure. Best current models put the plausible net change in global crop yield between 2% gain and −3% loss per decade, compared to today's productivity ( Lobell and Gourdji, 2012 ). The bigger picture, however, includes not only average global production, but localized effects of droughts, floods, and insect damage. Increasing costs involved with transportation, irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides will reduce local- and regional-level resilience to climatic threats, creating life-threatening crises for the world's more vulnerable populations. The annual number of food emergencies, as defined by the United Nations World Food Program, has risen from 15 per year in the 1980s to 30 per year today ( Schneider and Garrett, 2009 ). Food insecurity already threatens 1 in 7 of earth's population, with more than a billion people acutely or chronically malnourished on any given day. One study published in Science projected severe temperature increases in the tropics and sub-tropics, where half of humanity lives, and warned that “human consequences of global climate change could be enormous” ( Battisti and Naylor, 2009 ).

Systems providing clean drinking water and sanitary sewage disposal are among the most important achievements of the industrial revolution, and a major driver of the second phase of Omran's epidemiological transition. Nevertheless, close to a billion people lack access to potable water, and more than 2 billion live without sanitary sewage systems ( United Nations and World Health Organization, 2014 ). While this is clearly an area amenable to improvement regardless of warming-induced climate change, environmental threats to water security are sure to worsen. Some water-stressed regions will become hotter and more arid, decreasing food production, while others will suffer more frequent and consequential flooding, impacting water and sanitation as well as agriculture. Perhaps the most worrisome long term water-related threat comes from loss of mountain glaciers, which feed rivers providing water for more than a sixth of the world's population ( Beniston and Stoffel, 2014 ; Laghari, 2013 ). Even if average annual rain and snowfall levels remain adequate, seasonal variations will increase, leading to more and worse downpours and flooding, and longer and more threatening dry seasons.

There is continuing uncertainty regarding projected increases in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. Heat waves, heavy precipitation events, floods, droughts, and windstorms at sea and on land have all increased over the past few decades ( Coumou and Rahmstorf, 2012 ; Diffenbaugh et al., 2013 ; Lane et al., 2013 ). However, the inherent variability in the measurement of these events has meant that some of these increases have not yet reached statistical significance. For instance, strong trends in worsening storms have been observed in the North Atlantic and the Indian Oceans ( Emanuel, 2005 ). Heat waves are especially life-threatening, with the 2003 European heat wave responsible for the loss of more than 60,000 lives ( Analitis et al., 2013 ; Filleul et al., 2006 ; Orru et al., 2013 ). Heat- and drought-related events will threaten some populations, but others will be faced with floods and freezing, as climate change disrupts moderating influences such as temperate weather patterns and ocean currents.

Substantive questions emerge related to responsibility, ethics and, equity. Clearly, the negative health consequences of climate change will disproportionally harm the world's poor and disadvantaged populations, who have in general contributed the least towards greenhouse gas emissions ( Anstey, 2013 ; Bernstein and Rice, 2013 ; Bowen and Friel, 2012 ; Donohoe, 2003 ; Singh, 2012 ). For example, expected mortality impacts of environmental change have been projected to be as much as 500 times higher in African than European populations ( McMichael et al., 2008 ). Disadvantaged people suffer first and worst when subjected to new threats, as they already have multiple risks and little margin of safety.

Appropriate response to the threats that climate change presents varies dramatically by locale ( Patz and Olson, 2006 ). Poor, low-lying and under-developed regions are under the greatest threat, but also have the greatest potential cost-effective gain from appropriate action ( Bowen and Friel, 2012 ). Improvements in built infrastructure targeting potable water, sewage, and storm run-off are of high priority, as are investments in sustainable agriculture, housing, transportation and education. Emergency response systems able to alert people and provide safety during extreme weather events are needed, as are new or better sea walls in many coastal locations. Basic health services, including vaccination, maternity and infant care, rehydration, injury prevention and treatment, and infectious disease prevention and treatment will strengthen resilience and facilitate gradual long-term health gains. Long term sustainability in the developing world is crucially dependent on population stabilization ( Carlowe, 2009 ).

The main challenge of the developed world is to vastly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, and to maintain a productive economy while doing so ( National Climate Assessment and Development Advisory Committee, 2014 ). Climate science tells us that in order to maximize the likelihood of a sustainable future in a livable world, only a small proportion of earth's remaining fossil fuel reserves can be burned for energy. In this light, seeking new coal or oil deposits, or exploiting existing tar sand deposits, does not appear to be compatible with a long-term livable future. Given the high levels of energy consumption that people in the developed world have come to expect, the challenges of rapidly moving to a net-zero carbon economy are formidable, indeed. But this is what it seems that we must do, if we are to leave our descendants with both civilization and planetary ecosystem intact.

Several authors have begun to investigate the potential health benefits of transition to a low-carbon economy (Anon, 2000; Bouzid et al., 2013 ; Cheng and Berry, 2013 ; Friel et al., 2011 ; Haines, 2012 ; Holmner et al., 2012 ; McMichael, 2013 ; Patz and Hahn, 2012 ). For instance, dramatic reductions in the use of animal-based foods and energy-intensive transportation (eg. personal vehicles, jet travel, elevators, etc.) could lead to substantive reductions in obesity, diabetes and heart disease ( Friel et al., 2009 ; Haines and Dora, 2012 ). Improvements in urban transportation systems could both reduce greenhouse gases and improve physical fitness, leading to better health ( Schmeltz et al., 2013 ; Woodcock et al., 2009 ). Reducing the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, will lower rates of cardiac and respiratory disease and death attributable to air pollution ( De et al., 2013 ; Li et al., 2013 ; Thurston, 2013 ). Better insulation and more efficient heating and cooling systems will reduce household energy costs, and savings could be shifted towards health-enhancing activities and products, such as more fruits and vegetables, bicycles and other exercise equipment, and healthy recreational activities ( Wilkinson et al., 2009 ).

Transportation of goods and people requires massive energy expenditure, nearly all of which comes from fossil fuels. Shifting towards more localized economies could substantively reduce humanity's carbon footprint, enhancing both community and personal health. Efforts at reducing carbon footprints should take into account efficiencies. For example, transportation of efficiently produced agricultural products by sea or rail might well leave less of an imprint than trying to produce them locally. Nevertheless, air transport of goods and people will need to be radically reduced if we are to transition to a sustainable carbon neutral economy.

Transmission of electrical energy from source to consumer involves large scale inefficiencies, often involving substantive energy losses. Locally-produced energy based on wind, solar, hydroelectric, geothermal and tidal sources would increase transmission efficiency, provide good jobs, and empower communities to take responsibility for their energy use. Engaging local political, financial, education and health sectors in planning and carrying out energy system transformation could lead to feasible, efficient, and sustainable solutions that national or state level planning might overlook. While it is undoubtedly true that the scale of necessary change will require substantive upfront input, most economic models suggest that investing in preventive efforts now will cost far less than paying for the more expensive consequences later ( Cooke, 2013 ; Haines, 2012 ; Knowlton et al., 2011 ; Nemet et al., 2010 ; Pindyck, in press; Ramanathan and Xu, 2010 ; Stern, 2013 ; Stern and Taylor, 2007 ). It is also true that the projected health co-benefits of reducing fossil fuel use are substantive, and will begin to accrue almost as soon as mitigation efforts are initiated ( Cheng and Berry, 2013 ; Nemet et al., 2010 ; Roberts, 2009 ; Thurston, 2013 ; West et al., 2013 ).

A few authors have begun to envision the changes that the health care system will need to undertake in response to climate change ( Blashki et al., 2007 ; Ebi, 2011 ; Parker, 2011 ; Podein and Hernke, 2010 ; Richardson et al., 2009 ; Rosenblatt, 2005 ; Walker et al., 2011 ). Several of these have to do with infrastructure and technology. Health care buildings, especially hospitals, are among the most energy-intensive of facilities. Medical interventions, including pharmaceuticals and surgical procedures, depend on highly technical and fossil fuel based energy-intensive infrastructures. Reliance on unnecessary laboratory testing, combined with costly, risky, and marginally effective pharmaceutical intervention, has reached epidemic proportions ( Berwick and Hackbarth, 2012 ; Brody and Light, 2011 ; Grady and Redberg, 2010 ; Lenzer, 2012 ). Overdiagnosis ( Gotzsche et al., 2009 ; Hoffman and Cooper, 2012 ; Welch et al., 2011 ) and overtreatment ( Abramson, 2004 ; Brownlee, 2007 ; Whitaker, 2010 ) for those that have health insurance may lead to as much harm as lack of access for those that do not ( Himmelstein et al., 2001 ; Lasser et al., 2006 ). As Ivan Illich warned in 1976 ( Illich, 1976 ), we physicians and our associated biotechnical workforce may have – to some extent – created a “medical nemesis” during the “expropriation of health.” By reducing energy-intensive and low-yield interventions, and by transitioning towards practices aimed at psychosocial as well as physical health, we can support a transition towards a sustainable future. This will involve adopting new paradigms as well as practical solutions, and will require new ways of training health care personnel to deal with new and evolving threats to human health.

Gradually shifting towards more appropriate and effective methods – such as health-enhancing behaviors, nutritional guidance, social support and environmental safety – could integrate well with locally-based and health-promoting agriculture, water, sewage and energy systems. Today, most Americans drive automobiles to get to their doctors. In the future, it might make more sense to use email and telephone for most communications, to have neighborhood-based clinicians available for direct interaction and physical exam when useful, and to reserve analysis of biological specimens and diagnostic imaging for cases where those modalities are proven to be cost-effective (a small fraction of current use, we believe). Delivery of effective public health interventions such as childhood immunization and annual influenza vaccination could be handled by nurses in schools, workplaces, or neighborhood community centers. Health education and promotion, ( Patrick et al., 2012 ) including exercise and nutrition classes, could be led by public community health workers in easily accessed locations. Psychological counseling, social work services and dentistry could also be located at the community or neighborhood level, so that active transport (walking, biking) could replace energy-intensive and polluting transportation as the predominant mode of accessing health care. To some extent, these sorts of things are already available in places such as Denmark, The Netherlands, and Cuba, where positive examples can be learned from, as high cost high impact systems in America and elsewhere seek to reduce their carbon footprints.

Health care systems are composed of numerous individuals, all of whom have the opportunity and perhaps moral obligation to act. Given the gravity of the situation, health professionals have a duty to educate their patients and the public, and use their societal positions to call for policies discussed above. First, interested health professionals should lobby their local medical schools and residency programs to adopt curricula in climate change health impacts, and health-related mitigation and adaptation. Second, doctors, nurses and allied health professionals should actively participate in groups like the European Health and Environment Alliance, the US Climate Health Alliance, and Health Care Without Harm (both US and EU), where they can learn how to educate and motivate institutional leadership and elected officials towards better policies and practices. Third, health professionals should mobilize the power of their provider groups and representative organizations such as the American Medical Association and various European medical societies to put lobbying power behind the climate policy statements that many of these groups have already made. Fourth, and finally, to reach the public's ears, health professionals must work with well-connected environment and climate advocacy groups, such as the Sierra Club, 350.org, and the World Wide Fund for Nature.

For some readers, especially those not yet convinced of the basic findings of climate science, these ideas and proposals may seem difficult to accept, or even to discuss or consider. Nevertheless, the evidence is robust and the basic science is sound, with tremendous consensus among those who have studied it ( Cook et al., 2013 ; IPCC Working Group 2, 2014 ; Patz et al., 2014 ). For those that do not accept the scientific consensus, perhaps the health co-benefits expected to come from transitioning towards a carbon-neutral economy will be enough to gain acceptance, if not active support. For those whose minds are open to scientific findings, and are able to understand and accept the enormity of the climate-related challenges facing humanity, this essay may make more sense, and will hopefully stimulate thought and conversation to move us forward. As Costello reminds us, neither attitudes of climate change denial nor catastrophic fatalism should be used to guide societal-level decision making ( Costello et al., 2011 ). Instead, we need to take a hard look at what the best science is telling us, and then work towards pragmatic approaches to maximize benefits and minimize harms.

Which brings us back to Omran's “epidemiological transition,” a foundational theory these past few decades ( Defo, 2014 ; Feinleib, 2008 ; Riley and Alter, 1989 ; Szreter, 2004 ). Taking a broad view of human history, it is clear that the forces shaping such basic parameters as fertility, mortality and life-expectancy are complex, changing, and influenced by a number of factors, including structural influences resulting from large-scale human activities. Human health – mental and physical, symptomatic and functional – is influenced by complex underlying phenomena inextricably linked to the world in which we live. Over several centuries, unprecedented technological change has facilitated revolutions in agriculture, potable water and sewage, public health and medical care that have allowed tremendous increases in life-expectancy and population growth. Until recently, widespread belief in the power of technology and economic productivity to improve human lives has yielded a false promise that our collective future was assured. Until recently, the physical and biological nature of that world was understood to be relatively constant, with the assumption that our actions could not markedly influence the habitability of the planet as a whole. But now we know better. Widespread burning of fossil fuels, combined with the destruction of forests, has already influenced earth's temperature, sea level, and climate, and is threatening to wreak havoc on an unprecedented scale. Our ability to keep average global warming to the 2 °C considered safe by our planet's most knowledgeable scientists may be the major determinant of whether Omran's “Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases”will continue, or whether we will be entering an age of civilization collapse and population decline, as resource-depleted and socially-stressed societies fail to adapt to a heat-stressed planet with new coastlines, unpredictable water resources and agricultural capacity, and a small fraction of the biodiversity that a billion years of evolution has provided.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank our colleagues in the University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine and Public Health, and our home Department of Family Medicine, and especially Mary Checovich for copy-editing, formatting, and diligently assisting with the submission and review process. We would also like to acknowledge the thousands of scientists across the globe who have worked tirelessly to understand the nature and impact of anthropogenic global warming and climate change. Finally, we would like to dedicate this paper to Jeff Patterson DO, physician, teacher, humanitarian, and Physicians for Social Responsibility leader and activist, who died unexpectedly earlier this year. Bruce Barrett is supported by a Midcareer Investigator Award in Patient-Oriented Research (K24AT006543) from the National Centers of Complementary and Alternative Medicine at the National Institutes of Health.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests.

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Some of the major effects of global warming on human health include; malnutrition, extreme catastrophes and spread of infectious diseases (Tennesen, 2004 p.44). It has been established by health scientists that global warming is causing over 150,000 deaths and more than 5 million diseases every year (Archer, 2009 p.12).
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Whilst the direct effects of climate change on people's lives are causing a growing number of mental health problems, an indirect wave of mental health conditions are being experienced. Due to the perceived threat of climate change, stress responses can be triggered, leading to poor mental health and mental illnesses (Environmental Protection ...
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Oct 29, 2020 · The most vulnerable people—children, the elderly, the poor, and those with health conditions—are at increased risk for climate-related health effects. Edward Butcher, 64, looks out into the street as he sits near the window to stay cool in his non-air conditioned apartment on a sweltering Wednesday, Aug. 2, 2006 in the Ridgewood section of ...
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Also, warm temperatures can increase levels of air pollutants, including ozone, which can harm human health. Direct Effects: The most direct way that a rise in global mean temperature will affect human health is through a more frequent occurrence of heat waves. Heat can seriously harm or even kill during a heat wave.
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When one hears the phrase “global warming,” what often comes to mind is melting ice caps and warmer winters but most people are horribly unaware of the effects that global warming will have on human health. Food shortages, contaminated water, extreme weather, and deadly heat threaten the world because of the warming temperatures of our earth.
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Oct 25, 2024 · Q8. How does global warming affect human health? Ans – Global warming increases the risk of heat-related illnesses, respiratory issues from pollution, and diseases spread by insects. Extreme weather events also strain healthcare systems, affecting communities’ access to medical care.
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overall balance of effects on health is likely to be negative and populations in low-income countries are likely to be particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects. The experience of the 2003 heat wave in Europe shows that high-income countries may also be adversely affected. Adaptation to climate change requires public health
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